Perspectives on Children

  • Theory= fact based framework for understanding phenomena
  • Hypothesis= testable predictions Psychodynamics Perspective
  • Freud= behavior motivated by inner forces/ conflicts/ memories; little awareness o Two forces
  • Eros=
  • Thanatos= death and destruction
  • Unconscious­ the part of the body we don’t have access to
  • Three Aspects of Personality o Id= unconscious; present from birth “wants it now”; “doesn’t care about reality”
  • Freud said that it was the source of all our energy for personality
  • Driven by the pleasure principle immediate gratification
  • “Devil on your shoulder”

o Ego= trying to satisfy the id but bounds with culture. Deals with reality

  • Driven by the reality principle satisfies id in realistic ways
  • Delayed gratification o Superego= last to develop moral standards
  • Ego Ideal= what we SHOULD do
  • Conscience= what we should not do; leads to guilt
  • Psychosexual Stages of Development o Must complete successfully for healthy personality o Fixation= persistent focus on earlier stage

 

Oral stage­ birth­1yr;

  • Focus= mouth
  • Nursing provides sense of trust/comfort

Anal Stage­ 1­3yrs

  • Focus= pleasure is bowel and bladder control
  • Toilet training
  • Anal­expulsive personality
  • Anal­retentive personality

Phallic stage­ 3­5/6yrs

  • Focus= pleasure is on the genitals
  • Oedipus complex­ boy wants to sleep w/ Mom; sees as Dad as rival
  • Castration anxiety
  • Electra complex­ penis envy; girl feels castrated
  • Identification with same­sex parent
  • Females stay fixated
  • Karen Horney­ “womb envy”

Latency Stage­ 5/6­adolescence

  • Focus=none
  • Peer relationship, hobbies, ect.
  • Communication skills, self­confidence

Genital stage­ adolescence on

  • Focus= back to genitals
  • More interested in others
  • Balance in different life areas

Erik Erikson

  • First lifespan theorists; interactions with others
  • Psychosexual development­ understanding of relationships, actions of others, social responsibilities
  • Psychosocial Stages of Development

Trust vs Mistrust­ birth­ 12/18 months

  • Uncertain about world; look to caregiver
  • Trust= consistent, caring parent
  • Mistrust= inconsistent, harsh parenting
  • Need to have a little mistrust

Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt­ 12/18 months­ 3yrs

  • Kid is more assertive
  • Parents need to let kids try reasonable tasks alone
  • Confident= encouraged and supported
  • Inadequate= criticized or overpowered

Initiative vs Guilt­ 3­5/6yrs

  • More assertive
  • Interaction with other kids
  • Allowed freedom= make plans, keep trying
  • Guilty= made to feel bad about questions

Industry (competence) vs Inferiority­ 5/6­ adolescence

  • Learning tools of culture
  • Need to feel they can master tools
  • Teachers particularly important
  • Confident= encouraged/ reinforced
  • Inferior= restricted/ not encouraged
  • Could quit trying

Identity vs Role Confusion (diffusion)­ adolescence

  • Who am I and where do I fit in?
  • Examine identity; trying out difference options
  • Establishes identity= strong sense of self and purpose
  • No identity= negativity, rebellion

Behavioral Perspectives

  • Dev understood thru studying observable behaviors/ environmental stimuli

Classical conditioning­ individual responds to a neutral stimulus with a behavior not usually elicited by it

  • Pairing neutral stimulus with reflexive behavior
  • Pavlov’s experiment
  • Basic Principles
    • Unconditional stimulus­ automatically triggers a response
    • Unconditioned response­ reflexive behavior triggered by US
  • Conditioned stimulus­ previously neutral; paired with US; elicits UR iv. Conditioned response­ learned response to CS

Operant Conditioning­ voluntary behavior strengthened or weakened by consequences

  • Example­ Why did you come to class?
  • Types of Consequences
    • Reinforcement­ any consequence that increases likelihood behavior will occur
    • Punishment­ any consequences that decreases likelihood behavior will occur
  • Don’t get hung up on form of consequence; look at effects on behavior

Social Learning Theory

  • Social­Cognitive Learning Theory­ Bandura­ learning by observing another (model)
  • Behavior and consequences
  • Added social element­ observational learning­ learning by watching others
  • 3 models of observational learning
    • Live model (right there with you)
    • Verbal instructional model (telling you how to do it) iii. Symbolic model
    • Basic Social Learning Concepts
    • People learn thru observation­ Bobo doll study
    • Vicarious learning­ consequences of others’ actions ii. Mental states are important
    • Intrinsic reinforcement­ internal reward, like pride ii. Learning does not always lead to change in behavior
    • Stop, drop, and roll! ii. Modeling Process
      • Attention­ interesting, novel
      • Retention­ storage
      • Reproduction­ perform behavior, practice
      • Motivation­ affected by consequences

Contextual Perspectives

  • Considers relationship by which the individual and physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds
  • Bioecological approach­ Bronfenbrenner­ 5 levels of environmental influence
    • Microsystems­ institutions, groups with immediate impact; family, school, neighborhood
    • Mesosystem­ relationship between microsystems
  • Exosystems­ microsystem we do not have control over; still affect us
    • Ex: husband has stressful job ii. Macrosystem­ culture
    • Chronosystem­ events/ transitions over life spa; sociohistorical influences

The Scientific Method and Research

  • Theories and Hypothesis: Posing Developmental Questions o Goals­ describe, predict, explain, influence
    • Scientific method­ evaluating ideas with observation and analysis o Theory­ fact­based framework for understanding something o Hypothesis­ testable predictions
    • Operational definitions­ defines variables in study; how variables are measured
    • Make sure everyone is talking about same thing o Replication­ repetition of research study; reliability o One study is not that meaningful!
  • Methods
    • Descriptive­ describe things as they exist; no prediction, causation; depict things as they exist
  • Case study­ in­depth study of 1 person or small group

             Expectancy effects­ researcher only records what they think important

  • Naturalistic observation­ natural environments
    • Hawthorn effect­ people change behavior because they know they are being observed
    • Ethnographic research­ another culture
  • Survey method­ interviews/ questionnaire
    • Wording effects­ questions should be clear; careful of word choice
    • Sampling effects
    • Population­ everyone in group being studied
    • Representative sample­ same characteristics as population
    • Random sampling­ everyone in population has equal chance of inclusion
    • Convenience sample­ whoever is on hand
  • Correlational research­ prediction, no causation
  • Correlation­ measure of extent to which 2 variables covary
  • Correlation coefficient­ strength of covariance
  • Ranges from ­1 to +1
  • Negative correlation coefficient­ variables change in opposition direction
  • Positive correlation coefficient­ variables change in same direction
  • CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION!!!
  • Self­esteem studies o Experimentation
  • Experimental method­ manipulate a variable to see if that leads to changes in another variable. Causation.
  • Independent variable­ manipulated
  • Dependent variable­ shows effects of manipulation
  • Example­ effects of drug Z on depression
  • Experimental group­ exposed to IV
  • Control group­ not exposed to IV
  • Random assignment­ assignment to groups by chance
  • Confounding variables­ anything other than IV leading to changes in DV
  • Measuring Developmental Change o Longitudinal designs­ study individual over a long period
  • Pros= individual/ developmental trends
  • Cons= costly, time­ intensive, attrition o Cross­sectional designs­ study different age groups at the same time
  • Pros= time/ cost efficient, developmental trends
  • Cons= no individual trends, cohort effects o Sequential designs­ combo of longitudinal and cross­sectional