Physical Activity Interventions

Informational Approaches: To change knowledge and attitudes
Behavioral Approaches: To teach necessary skills for adoption and maintenance of behavior change becoming more physically active
Social Approaches: To create environments that facilitate and enhance behavior change aimed at people who are thinking about exercise, or who have just started exercising
Environmental and Policy Approaches: To change the structure of environments; to provide better places for physical activity not aimed at the individual level, but at one of the higher levels discussed in Chapter 5

Goals of Informational Approaches

Promote the benefits of physical activity
Awareness of opportunities for physical activity
Techniques to overcome barriers to activity
Strategies to overcome negative attitudes toward activity

Interventions that Use an Informational Approach

Motivational interviewing not included in the textbook
Mass media campaigns
Community-wide campaigns
Point of decision prompts

Motivational Interviewing

A counseling technique that provides people with the opportunity to talk and resolve their mixed feelings about exercise so they can move forward with change typically done one on one to increase one’s autonomous motivation
Counselor tries to get the person to reflect and resolve their mixed feelings on their own
Shown to be effective in increasing physical activity participation, but can be costly and only reaches a small number of people

Mass Media Campaigns

Types of media: Television and radio, pamphlets and posters, PowerPoint presentations, DVDs, World Wide Web
Simple slogans
Extensive information-education
Try to stimulate the idea of exercise and get others to do more research
Effectiveness: o Reach large number of people o Are well remembered
Mixed success in increasing physical activity
Drawbacks:
Do not provide adequate or sufficient information o Can be expensive
May not reach target audience

Community-Wide Campaigns

Engage community members and organizations in the development and delivery of physical activity information
Ex: Health risk appraisals, fitness appraisals, training health care professionals, health and wellness fairs
Effectiveness:
Improvements in percentage of people who are active 5 increase and increasing energy expenditure 15-16 increase

Drawbacks:

Require careful planning, well-trained staff, and resources o May not reach enough people
Require “buy in” from influential members of the community

Point of Decision Prompts

Remind people who want to be more active that they about to have an opportunity to engage in physical activity
Place a sign at points where people must decide
Ex: Elevator-escalator vs. stairs; benefits of stair climbing for health and weight loss
Effectiveness: o Take little time, effort, and money to implement
Effective when messages about specific benefits are targeted to specific groups

Drawbacks:

Effective only when the sign is posted
Effective only when alternative options such as stairs are safe and easy to find o Doesn’t guarantee people will find other opportunities to be active in daily life

Effective Informational Interventions – What Messages Should Do

Emphasize meaningful, specific, positive consequences of exercise to targeted audience
Create social pressure to exercise
Enhance people’s beliefs that they have control over their physical activity behavior
Provide simple but detailed information on how to start an activity program

Behavioral Approaches to Increasing Physical Activity

Teach people behavioral skills that will help them initiate and maintain an activity program o Recognize cues and opportunities o Develop strategies

o Recognize and manage “sabotagers”

Examples of Commonly Used Behavioral Techniques

Establishing an exercise contract
Goal-setting
Self-monitoring
Preventing relapse
Imagery

Exercise Contract

Start date, award date, goal, specification of reward, and information on what you’re going to do
Having signed a contract, they may feel more obligated to stay in until at least the reward date, and then you can try to get them to sign another contract

Set SMART Goals

Specific: Target behavior
Measurable: Frequency, duration, intensity
Adjustable Often effective to set a long-term goal and a bunch of small short-term goals to help gauge progress
Realistic: But challenging
TimeCbased: Start and end dates
Interventions should involve establishing plans of action that will facilitate goal achievement

Goal Setting Worksheet

Can have goal-setting worksheets where people needed to write down goals, let them remember it and become salient
Post the goal setting worksheet up so they are reminded each day of their goals
Make goals public

o It will be a motivator because if they don’t accomplish them people will know – Some kind of evaluation is crucial so you know how you’re progressing

Self-Monitoring

Paying attention to one’s own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors o Level of exercise intensity i.e. heart, respiratory rates; rate of physical exertion to prevent overexertion and injury

o Daily physical activity behavior with an activity log

Relapse Prevention

Relapse: Failure to resume regular exercise after lapses in activity i.e. relapse back to sedentary lifestyle
Seek to prevent the abstinence violation effect – when a lapse causes the exerciser to abandon entire exercise regimen

Mental Imagery

Imagery has shown to be an effective technique in a variety of tasks and situations, and to have powerful effects on behavior as well as self-confidence and other cognitions
It is believed that imagery facilitates goal-directed actions by strengthening the links between thought and goal-directed behavior
White and Hardy 1998 have defined imagery as: “an#experience#that#mimics#real# experience.#We#can#be#aware#of#“seeing”#an#image,#feeling#movements#as#an#image,#or# experiencing#an#image#of#smell,#tastes,#or#sounds#without#actually#experiencing#the#real# thing.#Sometimes#people#find#that#it#helps#to#close#their#eyes.#It#differs#from#dreams#in# that#we#are#awake#and#conscious#when#we#form#an#image.”
Everyone has the ability to create and use imagery, however some choose not to use it even when it may prove to be beneficial
This is partially due to individual differences; some people are better imagers than others. If you are high in imagery ability, you are more likely to use imagery in a given situation
Betts 1909 conducted one of the first studies that explored the use of imagery. He investigated the spontaneous use of imagery in a variety of tasks including simple association, logical thinking, mental multiplication, and discrimination judgments. He found that people often use imagery in doing these tasks, but that it is more beneficial in doing some tasks than others

Dual Coding Model

Nature of Imagery

Multidimensional visual, kinesthetic, auditory
Complex create, add, transform
Basic Manner of Thinking Dual Coding Theory

Imagery Interventions in Exercise

Overall Objective

Conduct interventions investigating imagery’s impact on variables such as self- efficacy SE or exercise identity

Self-Efficacy Intervention

Research has demonstrated a positive link between self-efficacy and exercise behavior, particularly when individuals are faced with challenges
Rodgers and Sullivan have proposed a three factor model of self-efficacy for exercise which includes task self-efficacy, coping self-efficacy, and scheduling self-efficacy to coordinating one’s activities to include regular physical activity
Correlational evidence has identified a relationship between exercise imagery and self-efficacy, however it is not known whether or not the different types of self- efficacy can be independently influenced and whether or not this can be done using an imagery intervention
The purpose of the present study was to determine if the three types of self-efficacy could be differentially influenced using guided imagery interventions in an experimental design controlling for overt mastery experiences

Participants

61 females which a mean age of 31.47 and BMI of 27.71 who exercised less than one time per week
53 were Caucasians

Measures

Participants were assessed at baseline, mid-point and after the completion of the intervention

Exercise Program

12-week individualized, cardiovascular exercise program prescribed to each participant 30-60 minutes per session, 3 sessions per week
Week 1-4: 50-60 HRR
Week 5-8: 55-65 of HRR
Week 9-12: 60-70 of HRR

Intervention

Participants were randomly assigned into one of three experimental groups Task,

Coping or Scheduling self-efficacy imagery groups or to the control group

Participants in the imagery groups received three guided imagery sessions over the course of one week, before they began the exercise program
At week 6, an imagery booster session was also provided
Participants in the control group met with the researcher for one additional nutritional session

Results

Significant Group X Time interactions found for the first 6 weeks of the exercise program for each self-efficacy type
For example, coping self-efficacy for exercise changed most among those people who received the coping self-efficacy imagery intervention
For weeks 6-12, only the main effect for self-efficacy type remained significant

Discussion

Each type of self-efficacy was augmented by the corresponding imagery to a greater extend than the other types of self-efficacy by the interventions
Targeting each type of self-efficacy through an imagery intervention has separable effects that are mostly restricted to the targeted type task self-efficacy seems to be either related to both the other self-efficacy types and-or most quickly affected by overt experience

Exercise Identity Intervention

Self is organired into multiple identities which reflect oneself in the context of a particular role
Individuals are motivated to reaffirm their identity by engaging in identity- congruent behavior
Stronger exercise identity relates to more physical activity, self-regulatory efficacy, and satisfaction with life among older adults

Purpose

To examine the change in exercise identity over 36 weeks among female initiates
To test the impact of an exercise imagery intervention versus an attention control on exercise identity

Intervention

Participants in the imagery group were provided with weekly scripted imagery sessions at the exercise venue during their first visit each week
The control were provided with weekly health information, mainly about nutrition

Discussion

Imagery group reported higher exercise identity at the post intervention assessment
Higher exercise identity should have a positive effect on physical activity behavior
Need longer imagery intervention

Active Play Imagery

Children’s Physical Activity

Physical benefits o Increased strength and endurance o Builds strong muscles and bones
Psychological benefits

o Increased self-confidence o Decreased stress and anxiety

Childhood Obesity

Canadian children are becoming more and more overweight due to poor nutrition and lack of physical activity o Teen obesity has tripled since 1980 1 in 4 youth are overweight
Obesity associated with various medical conditions Ex: Type II diabetes

Physical Activity Levels

92 of Canadian children and youth are not meeting the required physical activity guidelines
AHKC Report Card on Physical Activity for Children and Youth 2013 has given Canadian children a grade of “F” in Physical Activity Levels
Active kids are more likely to become active adults

Physical Activity

Unstructured Physical Activity

Active play
Unstructured physical activity that takes place outdoors in a child’s free time o Can be indoors or outdoors
Contributes to children’s social, emotional, and cognitive development

Active Play Imagery

There has been considerable investigation of children’s use of imagery in sport
Children’s use of imagery during leisure time physical activity active play has received no examination

Why Examine Active Play Imagery?

Canadian children received a failing grade in physical activity levels
Recommended that at least half of physical activity should come from active play
Unstructured forms of physical activity, specifically active play, may be a practical way for children to reach the daily physical activity levels
Children’s use of active play imagery may have motivational implications

Basic Needs Theory

Need for Autonomy: Being the perceived origin or source of one’s own behavior
Need for Competence: Feelings of effectiveness in one’s interaction with the social environment
Need for Relatedness: Having a sense of belonging and connection to other individuals

Active Play Imagery: Quantitative Study

To understand the content of children’s mental images associated with their active play
How active play imagery enables the satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs i.e. competence, autonomy, and relatedness from self-determination theory
104 participants age 7-14
23 focus groups
Semi-structured interviews specific questions and probes to guide the focus groups
Data analysis
Audio recordings were transcribed
Recordings were analyzed and divided into meaning units
Emerging themes were used to note active play as it satisfied basic needs

Results

As might be expected, for competence children imaged themselves being good at their active play activities
For relatedness, they imaged friends, family, and others Ex: Professional athletes
In terms of autonomy, participants placed an emphasis on imaging enjoyable activities, favorite activities, and activities they did frequently

Measure of Active Play Imagery

To measure active play imagery and examine its association with the three basic psychological needs autonomy, competence, and relatedness

Children’s Active Play Imagery Questionnaire

Fun: Enjoyment, interest, preference for physical activity, and opportunities to be physically active
Capability: Perceived competence, self-efficacy, intention to be active, and achievement orientation
Social: Playing with friends and others, encouragement to be active from significant others such as parents and peers

Method to Determine Questionnaire

Participants: 253 males and females age 7-14 years old and were recruited form various summer camps
Children’s Active Play Imagery Questionnaire: Access how frequently children use the 3 types of imagery
Basic Needs in Children: Assess the 3 basic psychological needs

Results Continued

Capability had a relationship with Competence
Fun had a relationship with Competence and Relatedness
Social had a relationship with Relatedness
Fun, capability and social had no relationship to autonomy

Discussion

Capability imagery is associated to competence o Images of being good and capable ! feeling effective in one’s environment
Social imagery is associated to relatedness o Images of active play with others ! a sense of belonging and connection to others
Fun imagery associated to relatedness o Kids image themselves having fun with their friends
Fun imagery associated to competence

o When children image fun in active play, it is based on them being good

Active Play Imagery Intervention

The purpose of the present study was to increase children’s active play through a 4- week guided imagery intervention

Measures

Active Play measured both objectively and subjectively
Pedometers
Physical Activity Questionnaires

Motivation o Situational Motivational Scale
Basic Needs

Basic Needs Scale for Children

Active Play Imagery

Children’s Active Play Imagery Questionnaire

Researchers met with participants once a week for 6 weeks
Participants wore the pedometer for all 6 weeks, except during organized sport, physical exercise, or sleeping
Week 1: Baseline looked at all the measures before beginning the intervention
Weeks 2C5: Intervention
Week 6: Post-intervention

Method

Phone base intervention
Call in 3 times a week and listen to a script

Experimental Imagery Group o Listen to 4 scripts one per week o Based on competence and relatedness
Control Group

Listen to two short stories unrelated to physical activities which were divided into chapters

Results

Average daily step counts for the imagery group increased from baseline to post- intervention week 6
Average daily step counts for the control group decreased from baseline to post- intervention

Future Directions

Longer intervention 8 weeks or 12 weeks
Individualized imagery scripts based on the participants favorite active play activities
New measurement for active play by using accelerometers

Effectiveness of and Drawbacks to Behavioral Interventions

Effectiveness:
The most effective way to increase physical activity o Effective among both men and women, in a variety of settings
Drawbacks: o Well-trained counselors are needed
Limited number of activity counselors vs. number of inactive people

Social Approaches to Increasing Physical Activity

Establish exercise groups and buddy systems
Teach people to ask for support
Develop telephone support systems
Use group support systems

Effectiveness and Drawbacks to Social Support Interventions

Leads to increase physical activity and fitness, especially when combined with other interventions
Impossible to know which component of the intervention was responsible for improvement
Success depends on cooperation of group members

Environmental-Policy Approaches to Increasing Physical Activity

Provide environmental opportunities, support, and cues to help people become more physically active
Directed toward physical and organizational structures
Research on effectiveness exists for only a couple of approaches: o Modifying policy and curriculum in school-based physical education o Creating-enhancing access to physical activity facilities

Modifying Policy and Curriculum in School-Based Physical Education

Increase the weekly frequency and duration of physical education classes
Offer new classes that appeal to students who are opting out of physical education
Educate physical education teachers on how to design classes and activities o Decrease instruction and “standing around” time o Increase moderate and vigorous physical activity

Effectiveness and Drawbacks to Modifying Policy and Curriculum

Effectiveness: o Can increase physical activity in young people

Drawbacks:

Not known if this participation helps to establish life-long patterns of active living
Difficult to convince school districts and parents of importance of devoting time-resources to enhancing physical education programs

Creating-Enhancing Access to Physical Activity Facilities

Groups work together to change local environments and create opportunities for physical activities o Build-enhance exercise facilities, walking trails, pools and gyms
Make local parks and playgrounds safer
Eliminate financial barriers and physical obstructions

Effectiveness and Drawbacks to Creating-Enhancing Facilities

Effectiveness: o Interventions can result in a 25 increase in the proportion of people who exercise at least 3 times per week

Drawbacks: o Time-consuming and resource-consuming

Providing people with opportunities to be active doesn’t guarantee that they will actually be active

Guest Lecturer: What is Imagery?

Imagery has been described as “an experience that mimics real experience and involved using a combination of different sensory modalities in the absence of actual perception”
Modalities senses : Visual-feeling kinesthetic -smell-hearing-task – External visual imagery
Internal visual imagery inside your body looking out through your own eyes

Visual Imagery Perspectives

External Visual Imagery: Beneficial in comparison to internal visual imagery during gymnastics

Internal Visual Imagery: Beneficial when performing downhill running, or a driving simulation, or downhill skiing.

Kinesthetic Imagery

-he feeling of movement
Force
Effort
Spatial parameter

Discussion

-ask characteristics moderator of visual imagery perspective-performance relationship
Kinesthetic imagery – beneficial when have expertise
Other more basic individual difference variables
Personality – fundamental attribute for psychological preparation hardy, Jones, Gould, 1996
Woodman et al. – Extraversion moderated the effects of goal-setting on distractibility in training

Personality?

“…psychological qualities that contribute to an individual’s enduring and distinctive patterns of feeling, thinking and behaving.”
Enduring: Consistent across time and situations
Distinctive: Differentiates between individuals
Contribute to: Describe and-or explain empiricism vs. theory-building
Feeling, thinking behaving: All aspects of a person

The “Big Five” Personality Dimensions

Openness to new experience vs. closedness
Conscientiousness vs. lack of direction
Extraversion vs. introversion
Agreeableness vs. antagonism
Neuroticism vs. emotional stability

Typical Personality Research Literature in Sport

POMS different between more or less successful athletes
2000 male athletes and non-athletes completed the Cattell 16PF: o No overall differences between athletes and non-athletes
But compared to non-athletes, team sportsmen were more extroverted and individual sportsmen were less anxious

Typical personality research in sport and exercise: Atheoretical “shotgun” approach
But:

Theory-driven personality research sparse
Behavior is codetermined by personality and situational factors

Narcissism

Clinical settings: Need for admiration and a lack of empathy
Normal settings: Self-view and feelings of entitlement

Wallace and Baumeister 2002

Hypothesis: Narcissists’ self-focus and self-importance will lead them to perform better when there is an opportunity for personal glory
Four experiments investigating the interaction between narcissism and self- enhancement opportunity
Conclusion: High pressure-challenge situations appeal to narcissists because the pressure magnifies the glory of success o Narcissists perform better when challenge and pressure are high

Narcissism Personality

Think highly of own abilities
Like to look at themselves from an outsider’s perspective
NPI – Vanity admiration of the self from an external point of view
Performance effects for narcissism: Self-enhancement SE opportunity

Study

High narcissists performance SE dependent
Interaction between imagery and SE condition
External Visual Imagery EVI : Expect increase in performance across condition low self-enhancement opportunities and high self-enhancement
IVI: No increase in performance
Practice: 50 trials final 10 putts with imagery, either IVI or EVI
Low SelfCEnhancement Condition: 20 putts image prior to each putt
High SelfCEnhancement Condition: 20 putts image prior to each putt, with financial incentive for the top 3 putters

Mean Radial Error Dependent Variable

High narcissists with EVI: Less error closer to the hole in comparison to when they used IVI
Low narcissists: No differences across the two conditions

Discussion

Consider such personality characteristics when recommending and implementing psychological skills ex: Goal-setting, imagery, etc.. with athletes
Consider the narcissistic tendencies of the performer when recommending the use of particular imagery perspectives
Caution – preliminary only study so far, more research is needed
One size does not fit all