David Reimer AKA Bruce/Brenda, John/Joan

  • Born normal male with identical brother
  • At 6 months­ diagnosed with phimosis­ tight foreskin making it hard to urinate
  • At 8 months­ referred for circumcision
  • Bruce was circumcised using a Bovie cartery machine­ not intended for use on extremities/genitals
  • Bruce’s penis was destroyed­ burned to body
  • Brian’s circumcision was cancelled­ full recovery without treatment
  • John Money­ pioneer in field of sexual development/gender identity o Gender relatively plastic in infancy and develop primarily as result of social learning from early childhood ~ 2 years
  • At 22 months­ surgery performed to remove tests, construct vagina o Bruce became Brenda
    • Especially valid case study of social learning concept of gender identity
      • Build in control­ identical brother
      • 1st of child born with structurally normal genitals
    • Money reported on Brenda’s progress as John/Joan case o A successful female gender development
    • Brenda did not feel like a girl­ masculine characteristics
    • 1997­ undergone surgery to reverse assignment o living as David Reimer o Married, step­father
    • Committed suicide in 2004

 Of all characteristics that make up who you are, one of the most far­reaching is your sex.

  • Virtually all of human functioning has a gendered cast­ huge impact on how we develop o Dress, speak, carry ourselves, hobbies
  • Terms:
    • Sex­ biological status of being male/female o Intersexed­ cannot tell male/female at birth
      • Biological sex is genetically and hormonally derived
      • Besides sex itself, hormones can also influence gender typed behavior

 Androgens­ tom boys

 Estrogen­ more girlie

  • Gender Identity­ internal sense of being male/female
    • Transsexuals o Gender role­ social categories of male/female
    • Expectations of how to behave

 Theories of Gender Role Development

  • Money and Erhardt’s Biosocial Theory­ concentrates on biological forces that channel and constrain development o Influence how others treat child­social forces
  • Social Learning Theory­ Albert Bandura and Walter Mischel
    • Gender role instruction is not different from any other kind of social learning
      • Direct tuition/differential reinforcement­ adults and peers reward

kids for behavior considered appropriate and punish them if they depart too far from what is considered gender appropriate

  • Observational learning­ children adopt attitudes and behaviors of variety of same sex models­ parents, movies, TV, books…
  • Cognitive Development Theory­ Kohlberg
    • Looks at social forces but see kids as more active in gender development
      • Reach level of gender identification
      • Actively socialize themselves o 3 phases:
      • basic gender identity­ by 3, they know they are a boy/girl
      • Gender Stability­ they realize they will always be a boy/girl

 High variability when this occurs

  • Gender consistency­ 5­7, realize sex is stable across situations
  • Gender Schema Theory­ Sandra Bem
    • Gender schemas are networks of gender information that color perceptions and shape behaviors
      • Cognitive structure is inappropriate
      • Guide our own behavior
    • Evolutionary Approach
      • Stresses principles of natural selection and adaptation as major determinants of social behavior.
      • Sex differences and gender­types social behaviors emerge because they promote survival of an individual’s genes
        • More about gender differences in mating

 Male­ promiscuity to spread DNA

 Female­ seek out one male to raise children with

 Gender Roles

  • Masculinity­ boys are encourage towards instrumental roles­ taking chare, standing up for themselves… o These dimensions of masculine stereotypes can be seen in 3 ways adolescent boys get into gangs
    • Jumped in­ beat up
    • Show fearlessness­ kill someone
    • Engage in callous sexual acts­ rape
  • Feminity­ girls are encourages toward expressive roles­ taking care of others, being kind and nurturing o Girls have easier time breaking gender roles
  • Androgyny­ combination of masculine and feminine traits in one person o Many psychologist are saying androgyny is healthier than either masculinity or femininity

o More likely to be positive for girls than boys in puberty

  • Highest self esteem in girls
  • Masculine boys have highest self esteem
  • Gender role transcendence­ belief that when an individual’s competence is at issue, it should be conceptualized not on the basis of masculinity, femininity, or androgyny, but on a person basis o Do they do the job well?

 Actual Differences between Males and Females

  • Culturally dependent­ not born in genes o Verbal ability­women have greater vocabulary
    • Visual/spatial abilities­ males see in “map view” o Mathematics­depends
      • Computation­ women are better with basic tools
      • Theory­ males o Aggression­ depends
      • Overtly­ males
      • Covertly­ females o Activity level­ males have higher levels of PA
    • Fear, timidity, risk taking­ males, especially in new situations
      • Evolutionary trait­ do not need that many males
      • Males have smaller pre­frontal cortex where decision making and seeing consequences takes place o Emotional Expressivity/Sensitivity­ male and women are equal
      • Women express they emotions more o Compliance­ women
      • They go along with orders/authority
      • Diplomatic­ suggestions
    • Scientists may bias research o Alpha bias­ maximum difference between groups being studied o Beth bias­ minimum difference between genders
    • Things to remember on research on sex differences:
      • High degree of overlap in distribution of sexes o Within sex variability is very high
      • Differences vary by context in which you observe behavior

 Cultural Beliefs and Sexuality

  • Cultural Beliefs o Restrictive cultures­ place strong prohibitions on sex before marriage
    • Female virginity highly prized
    • Physically separate un­married
    • Ines Beag culture EX­ most sex repressed culture
    • Double standard­ females killed if have sex before marriage, males are never punished
  • Semi restrictive cultures­ also have prohibitions regarding premarital sex, not as strictly enforced and easy ways around them
    • Turn blind eye unless female becomes pregnant
    • US culture EX o Permissive cultures­ encourage and expect premarital sex throughout lifespan
    • Mangaian culture in South Pacific EX
  • Importance of female virginity has led some traditional culture to mutilate their females o Male circumcision­ removal of foreskin of penis
    • Fairly common in US
    • Health reasons­ cleanliness
    • Dad was, therefore child should be
    • In recent years, there has been a movement to stop circumcision of infant boys in US

 Painful

 No real reason outside of religion

  • Males in traditional cultures are often circumcised as adolescents, in public ceremonies
  • Female genital mutilation­
    • 3 main types

Sunna circumcision­ removal of hood/tip of clitoris

Clitoridectomy/excision­ remove of entire clitoris and adjacent labia

Infibulation/pharaonic circumcision­ removal of clitoris, labia, and join scraped sides of vulva across vagina

  • FGM is mostly done in unsanitary conditions in which a midwife uses unclean sharp instruments such as razor blades, scissors, kitchen knives, and pieces of glass

 Frequently used on severely girls in succession

 Rarely cleaned­ increase transmission of viruses

  • FGM has long­term physiological, sexual, and psychological effects

 Sexual frigidly

 Genital malformation

 Delayed menarche

 Chronic pelvic complications

 Recurrent urinary retention and infection

 Obstetric complications for fetus

  • Why? Cultural, not religious practice

 Cleanliness

 Danger to husband

 Economic survival­ marriage­ ensure faithfulness

 Local custom

 Insurance of virginity/fidelity

 Homosexuality

  • Sexual preference across the lifespan­ most think hetero/homosexual behavior are distinct patterns easily defined o Alfred Kinsey and the continuum of sexuality
    • 0= most exclusive heterosexual
    • 6= most exclusive homosexual
  • Homophobia­ fear and hatred of homosexuals
    • Can result in ridicule, beatings, killings
    • Matthew Shepard EX
  • Passing­ process of hiding one’s real social identity o Gay and lesbian adolescents attempt suicides at rates of 20­35% higher than those of straight teenagers

 Have higher rate of substance abuse, school problems, running away from home

  • Biological basis for homosexuality o Results of hormone studies have been inconsistent

 A very early critical period might influence sexual orientation

 Between 2­5 months after conception, exposure of fetus to female hormones may cause individual (male/female) to be attracted to males

  • Brain Studies­ LeVay found an area of hypothalamus that governs sexual behavior that is twice as large in heterosexual than in homosexual men
  • Twin studies­ same environment but DNA differs

 Suggests genetic contribution of sexuality

 Monozygotic twins­ ~ 2/3 concordance rates

 Dizygotic twins­ < 1/3 concordance rates

  • An individuals sexual orientation is most likely determined by combination of genetic, hormonal, cognitive, environmental factors o Not causes of homosexuality
    • Modeling theory­ gay parents not more likely to raise homosexual children
    • Poor parenting theory­ weak/absent father + dominant mother = homosexual male
    • Girls choosing male role models­ tom boys
    • Seduction theory­ gays are after your children, sexually abused
    • “by default” theory­ too unattractive to get a male

 Sexually transmitted infections ­ diseases that are contracted primarily through sexual contact

  • 5 key points about all STIs in US o STIs affect men and women fo all backgrounds and economic levels
    • People under 25 account for 2/3 of all new STI
    • Increase of STI in elderly o Incidence of STI is still rising
    • Having sex younger, marrying late
    • Divorce is more common
    • More sexual partners o STI cause no symptoms, particularly in women

 

Health problems for STI more severe and frequent in women

  • Do not go to doctor because see no symptoms o When diagnosed and treated early, SIT can be treated effectively
  • Strains are becoming more resistant to vaccines
  • Prevention:
    • Avoid sexual contact with others
    • Have a mutually monogamous sexual relationship with uninfected partner o Correctly and consistently use a condom
    • Do not use intravenous illegal drugs or have sex with someone who does
    • Delay sex as long as possible

Limit the number of partners you have