Motivation ­ set of factors that activate, direct, and maintain  behavior towards a goal

  • The why behind your behavior

 Emotion ­ a subjective feeling that include arousal (physical), cognitions (thoughts), and expressions (how you let others know what you are feeling)

 Theories of Motivation

  • Instinct Theory­ attribute behaviors to instincts­ specific, inborn behavior patterns characteristic of an entire species o More applicable to animals o By 1920s­ fell out of favor:
    • Most important human behavior is learned
    • Human behavior is rarely rigid, inflexible, unchanging, found throughout species
    • Liking every conceivable human behavior to a corresponding instinct explains nothing
  • Drive Reduction Theory­ motivated behavior is aimed at reducing a state of bodily tension/arousal and returning the organism to homeostasis/balance o Drive­ state of tension or arousal that motivates behavior based on bodily needs
    • Primary drives­ unlearned, found in all animals

 Emphasis­ do nothing once drive is achieved (does not explain all human behavior)

 Motivate behavior vital to survival of individual/species

 Eating, drinking, attachment bond EX

  • Secondary drives­ learned drives not based on a bodily state of need  Study, U­tube EX
  • Arousal theory­ suggests that each individual has an optimum level of arousal hat varies from one situation to the next and over the course of the day o Motivated to seek out optimum level of arousal o Arousal­ continuum referring to state of alertness o Problems­certain forms of stimulus is unclear, extreme levels

o Zuckerman­ sensation seeking­ basic motivation that varies greatly from person to person

  • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Start at bottom with most basic needs and move up once need is fulfilled o Deficiency needs­ must be fulfilled

  • Physiological needs­ air, water, food, shelter, clothing
  • Safety needs­ feel physically secure
  • Love/Belonging needs­ basic human relationship needs­ give/receive love
  • Esteem needs­ feel good about ourselves

 Respect of others

 Self­respect

o Being needs­ growth needs

Self­actualization­ make the most of unique abilities to feel complete  Characteristics:

  • Embrace facts/realities of world
  • Spontaneous in ideas and actions­ no second guessing
  • Creative
  • Interested in problem solving­ usually other peoples’
  • Feel closeness to others, generally appreciate life
  • Have system of morality that is fully internalized and independent of external authority
  • Judge others without prejudice

Self­transcendence­ spiritual needs

 Taken off latter because seen as more of a matter of religion

o Critiques­ Naïve

 Everyone is trying to be the best

Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivations

  • intrinsic motivation­ a desire to perform a behavior that stems from the behavior performed­ enjoy yourself
  • Extrinsic motivation­ desire to perform a behavior to obtain an external reward or avoid punishment o Get what we want or avoid what we don’t want
  • Whether behavior is intrinsically or extrinsically motivated, can have important consequences
  • When extrinsic rewards are offered for a behavior, intrinsic motivation and a sense of personal responsibilities for the behavior are likely to decrease, at least for a short time

 

Less likely to continue behavior outside your presence o Rethink motivations o $ for grades EX

 Eating

  • Metabolism­ refers to the process by which the boyd transform food into energy o Absorptive phase­ actively ingesting food o Fasting phase­ short/long term stores of E
  • Influences on hunger o The Brain
    • On switch­ lateral hypothalamus
    • Off switch­ ventromedial hypothalamus
    • Lesioning­ removes function of that part of the brain
    • Electrical stimulation studies­ stimulate part that forces particular function of that part of the brain

The Stomach­ physical sensation

  • WB Cannon and AL Washburn

 Washburn fasted, swallowed tube to register contraction of stomach

 Reported feeling hungry when stomach contracted

  • More complicated­ no stomach; can fool stomach in short term with low nutrient food/liquids
  • Chemical Signals in blood stream

Glucostatic theory of hunger­ proposes that hunger arises when glucose “thermostats” in NS detect low levels of glucose in BS

 Rat and Human studies

  • Delayed feeding behavior if injected small amount of glucose

 Best supported explanation

 Obesity ­ body weight 15 % or more above ideal for one’s height/age

  • BMI > 30
  • ~1/3 of adult population % increases o portion size o lack of PA o processed foods
  • health risks: o diabetes
    • CVD
    • High blood pressure o Stress on joints­ arthritis
  • Cultural Conceptions of Weight and Obesity o Body shapes have a lot to do with culture appearances o More acceptance of curves for AA

 Eating Disorders are comprised of ~ 90% adolescent/young women

  • Anorexia Nervosa­ self starvation and dramatic weight loss o 15% below ideal weight

o Body dysmorphia­ do not perceived bodies as others do o 10% of those diagnosed will die o Physical Effects:

  • Loss of menstrual periods
  • Dry, brittle bones due to significant bone density loss
  • Dry, brittle nails and hair, hair loss
  • Lowered resistance to illness
  • Hypersensitivity to heat and cold
  • Bruises easily
  • Appears to need less sleep than normal eaters
  • Digestive problems such as bloating or constipation
  • Muscle loss/weakness
  • Sever dehydration, resulting in kidney failure
  • Fainting, fatigue, overall weakness
  • Eventual growth of downy layer of hair (lanugo) all over body including face
  • Severe cases: heart trouble, low BP, low HR, low body temp, poor circulation, anemia, stunted growth, death o Causes:
  • Biological cues­ increased levels of serotonin/genetic predisposition

 Do not know if these are causes or effects of the disease

  • Social cues­ professions, sports, cultural values, family influence
  • Psychological and emotional cues

 Personality­ over achievers, have control , shine

 Major life events­ puberty

 Powerlessness

  • Bulimia nervosa­ involves eating massive amounts of food and then eliminating the food by self­induced vomiting or the use of strong laxatives o Binge and purge­ maintain fairly normal body weight o Rise of exercise bulimia

 Emotions

  • Basic emotions­ Robert Plutchik proposed 8 basic emotions: o Fear o Surprise o Sadness o Disgust o Anger

Anticipation

  • Joy
  • Acceptance
  • Each of these help us adjust to demands of our environment. According to Plutchik’s model, different emotions may combine to produce an even wider and richer spectrum of experience.
  • Universal Emotions?
    • Does everyone have the same set of emotions?
      • Some scientists challenged Plutchik’s model noting that it may apply only to emotional experiences of English­speaking people
    • Words used to name/describe an emotion may influence how that emotion is experienced
  • Primary emotions­ shared by people throughout the world regardless of culture o Love is not considered one o 4 criteria to ID primary emotions:
    • evident in all cultures
    • contribute to survival
    • associate with distinct facial expressions
    • evident in non­human primates
  • Secondary emotions­ found throughout one or more culture but not all cultures Theories of Emotions:
    • James­Lange Theory­ stimuli in environment causes psychological changes in bodies that we interpret quickly as emotions  Fight/Flight interpreted into fear
      • Research:

 Different psychological responses  for some emotions  Different emotions processed in different areas of the brain

  • Problems:

 Spinal Cord injuries still experience emotions

 Most emotions accompanied by similar psychological changes

  • Cannon­bard Theory­ we experience emotions and physiological changes at the same time
    • Stimuli­ thalamus­ cortex and hypothalamus

 Cortex­ emotion

 Hypothalamus­ bodily reaction

 Both happen simultaneously

  • Schacter’s 2 factor theory:
    • Trigger­ bodily change­ cognitive label

 Look around environment to see what’s likely to cause change

  • Facial Feedback Theory­ emotion is experienced in changes of facial muscles
    • Smiling­happy
    • Frowning­sad