A Brief (Recent) History

  • Around 2011
  • Some high-profile fraud
  • Multi-study paper on ESP in top journal
  • Some attention to failed replication studies
  • Longer history of ‘gossip’
  • ‘False positive psychology’ and ‘p-hacking’ o Incomplete, selective, or biased reporting

o Keep adjusting studies in order to achieve significant results

Questionable research practices – adding people, dropping/adding conditions, changing hypothesis, etc.

 

Researcher Incentives

  • Pressure/rewards for publication o More is better o New/novel is better o Faster is better o Null results not welcome • Jobs, funding, status at stake

 

Testing Replicability

  • The Reproducibility Project o Select representative sample of studies (2008) o Pair study with new researcher o Consult original researcher for details o Publicly record detailed plans o Collect new data & analyze results
  • Goal: to estimate the rate of reproducibility in psychology

Main goal of the Reproducibility Project – are they able to be replicated/repeated?

 

Results

About 1/3 – 1/2 studies found the original results

  • Effect sizes were about 50% of original reports
  • Cognitive psychology appeared more replicable than social psychology
  • Results generally viewed as disappointing
  • Not unique to psychology

Main Finding: 1/3 to 1/2 are able to be reproduced

 

What Explains Non-Replication?

  • Original result due to chance (p <.05)

The replication attempt could also be due to chance

  • Original result inflated, (partly) due to questionable practices
  • Mistake or bias in replication attempt
  • Different context, culture, psychological situation, or other boundary condition

If a study shows different results – there might be something else going on besides what was hypothesized

 

Why All This Can Be Positive

  • Quantifies/estimates reproducibility rate o But what rate is ideal?
  • Suggests value in reform
  • Motivates better practices
  • Is very ‘scientific’

Exercise of ‘asking the hard questions’ in scientific questions is very scientific

 

Ways Forward

  • More cautious view of published findings
  • Test potential moderators in new studies o e. discover what the result ‘depends on’

The results will depend on factors (moderators) such as location, gender, etc.

  • More open science practices o Make materials, procedures, data available o Pre-register study & analysis plans

Make a distinction that’s very exploratory

  • Better methods o g. larger sample sizes, carefully chosen measures

Conventional wisdom about how many people should be in studies Ability to create designs to find better results

  • Reward replication efforts o Funding, prizes, status
  • Most of this has already begun

 

Positive Emotions

  • Comparative neglect in emotion research

Easy to forget how often we have pleasant emotions

People experience tons more pleasant experiences than negative ones

Emotional experiences are more pleasant than unpleasant – although it’s the negative thoughts that stick

 

What is an Emotion?

  • Contrasting emotions with o Sensations or bodily pleasure
  • Appraisal; physical stimuli

o Moods

  • Aboutness, timeframe

Emotions: things that you feel relatively short periods of time

Moods: more long-lasting, not clearly about something (something doesn’t have to happen to put in a specific mood – not always) Long-term running average

Less about something and tend to last longer o Dispositions

  • Timeframe, even more so

Averages over time – dispositions o Affect

  • A more general term

General: mood/sensation has some degree of pleasant/unpleasantness

 

Views of Emotion

  • Basic Emotions View(s) o Distinct face, physiology, appraisal, etc. o Universality, cross-culture & species

o Clear lists (joy, sadness, fear, anger, disgust..)

Strong evolutionary & ecological notions

Notions are discrete, separate things – own facial expressions

Each of these things has its own part of the brain designated to the emotion

Clear lists: these are the basic emotions (6 in modern science)

In the moment – dispositions

Basic emotion – universal across all cultures

  • Dimensional View(s) o Organized based on similarity o More general ’causes’
  • Approach & avoidance; pleasantness & activation Applies more to moods and longer term states

 

Take the emotions and arrange them in a sensible space

 

What is an Emotion?

  • Multiple, loosely coupled components
  • Functional, evolutionary perspective prominent

Evolutionarily old and functionable – why do we feel sad? Why should we feel pride?

Should have been helpful, or we wouldn’t have it – even unpleasant emotions have useful functions

  • Appraisal
  • Physiological change In our brain and bodies
  • Expression (facial, posture, etc.)

Easily regulated – not always observed as they’re occuring

  • Subjective experience

What our emotions feel like to us

Action tendency (motivation shifts)

Emotions get us to do something

  • But, basic vs. dimensional views here Fits well with the basic emotional view

An Emotion: when some of these things some together

 

Appraisal

  • Cognitive Component
  • Quick assessment o Good or bad for me? o Can I cope?

o Who/what is responsible?

  • Can explain differences in experience
  • Provides ‘core themes’ for distinguishing emotions

Tell us – does a nice job at mapping it out

Articulates what that emotion is really about

How we make sense of our emotions/experiences

All judgments create a map of emotions and connections

Need to make sense of the world before we can have a reaction

 

Physiological Change

  • Peripheral ANS o g. EDA, HR, breath, finger temperature

o Cf. James-Lange Theory o Undoing hypothesis

Measure with polygraphs

Getting pretty good at linking up electro-dermal activity with different kinds of arousal

  • Brain o EEG and hemispheric asymmetry

Measures electricity coming off brain – captured brain waves essentially

Left H > Right H – associated with positive states (approach states – notion of desire)

Problem: brain is sitting under bone – not easy to find where the signal is coming from o fMRI & PET correlates

Better job at figuring out where activity is coming from in the brain

Emotions – commonly tucked in the middle

Through comparison where we find what positive emotions means/differences that exist o Wanting vs. liking

Addiction: becomes so much of a wanting that there isn’t much enjoyment coming from it

  • Distinct signatures?

Parts of the brain aren’t always associated with certain emotions

Question: how is the brain structured in terms of emotions? Can’t assume 1 to 1 relationship

 

Expressions

  • Face o FACS, EMG

Can feel and not have it shown – not an automatic output

Facial Acting Coding System (FACS): code for specific muscle contracting – use combination in a very detailed way to describe a facial reaction

  • Posture

Ex. Pride

  • Sounds & Vocalization
  • Touch

Ex. Affection, gratitude, sympathy – touch to convey the emotion

 

Action Tendencies

  • Motivation to do

Thing that you’re getting ready to do – getting you ready for something

Ex. Seeing a bear – quick fear emotional reaction

  • Seems more clear for unpleasant emotions
  • Motivates the broaden & build model

 

Broaden & Build Theory

  • Whereas action tendencies of unpleasant emotions narrow focus
  • Positive emotions broaden focus

Make lots of behaviours/thoughts for us

  • This then builds resources for the future
  • Examples
    • Joy: play, creativity
    • Interest: exploration, new information o Contentment: savouring, applying o Love: combines and focuses on other

Explanation for how good positive emotions are – what is the point?

 

Suggestive Evidence (Broaden)

 

Frederickson & Branigan (2005)

 

Waugh & Frederickson (2006)

  • Study of new university roommates over time Self-other overlap

Two circles that represent the closeness

  • Complexity of other (‘both traits’) More complexity in ourselves than others

One or both? More both answers = better relationship

  • Daily positive emotions
  • Building social resources?
  • Whelan & Zelenski (2012)

 

Some Nuance Needed?

  • Gable & Harmon-Jones (2008)
  • Role of ‘approach motivation’ o g., funny cats vs. delicious desserts; amusement vs. desire
  • Local vs. global processing tasks
  • Results: high approach motivation, pleasant emotion (desire) narrowed attention

 

Expanding List of Positive Emotions

  • Joy
  • Love
  • Pride
  • Contentment
  • Interest
  • Amusement
  • Awe
  • Gratitude
  • Inspiration

 

More Positive States & Time

 

Today’s goals:

  • Mini review: Positive emotions
  • Continue discussion of positive emotions
  • Understand the ‘knowledge emotions’ o What they are o How to distinguish them o Why they matter

Noba textbook chapter – assigned

  • Briefly, other positive emotions/states o Humor

o Flow

  • Consider how we predict and recall emotions

 

Mini Review: Emotions • What is a ‘basic emotion’?

Distinct emotions – list of things

  • How does the dimensional approach differ from the basic emotions approach? Dimensional: less clear where the boundaries lie – no distinct physiological signatures Basic Emotions: the feeling – you are x

 

Knowledge Emotions

  • Some overlap with ‘broaden & build’ ideas o Yet, that theoretical background not used here Come to similar conclusions
  • Knowledge emotions promote learning o Surprise o Interest
    • Confusion
    • Awe

 

Surprise

  • Fast, typically short duration
  • Interrupts attention
  • ‘Fills the mind’
  • Simple appraisal of unexpectedness
  • Motivate learning (usually quickly resolved)
  • Not really positive or negative
  • Has a distinct facial expression
  • (not the most interesting of emotions?)

After it has passes – try to make sense of what has happened

Makes us gather information – learn more things about the environment

 

Interest

  • Typically experienced as pleasant
  • Follows appraisals of novelty + comprehensible New + ability to figure it out
  • Promotes exploration (mental too) Physical + mental exploration
  • Essential to ‘intrinsic motivation’ Do things because we want to do them
  • Thus leading to superior learning

People learn more when they are interested

  • Related to trait curiosity, Openness

Experience a lost of interest – motivate them

 

Confusion

  • Experienced as unpleasant
  • Follows appraisal of novelty, complexity, incomprehensible
  • Still promotes learning o g., impasse driven learning
  • Interest vs. confusion can depend on prior knowledge

 

Awe

  • Less frequent
  • Typically experienced as (very) pleasant

Can also be followed with fear – pleasant feelings are maybe experienced after the fact once the brain has figured out what’s going on

  • Follows appraisal of vast inconsistency and attempt at accommodation
  • Common sources are art, music, nature
  • Often inspires desire to learn more o (e.g., NASA image of the day; science education) Also related to Openness

 

 

Summary of knowledge emotions

 

Similarity with Humor?

  • Benign violation approach o Notice conflict with expectation or ‘ought’ o See the conflict as non-threatening (benign) o Realize both things simultaneously o If you’re curious:

o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ysSgG5V-R3U

 

Flow

  • ‘Discovered’ via subjective experience across many domains (art, chess, athletics, etc.)
  • Similar to intrinsic motivation
  • Occurs when challenge and ability matched

Sweet spot: challenge and ability are balanced and well matched

  • Mostly ‘unconscious’ at the time
  • Compared to ‘junk flow’ o Satisfaction, value (absorption w/o challenge?)

Junk flow does not follow with the same amount of satisfaction

Value is a subjective thing (can be subjective)

We don’t all agree on one universal aspect of values

Common state of total absorption – across multiple domains

You are doing something because you enjoy it – something you truly want to do Pleasurable state in retrospect

 

Wirtz et al. like assignment #1

  • What are the key ideas covered in the introduction?

o ‘Online’ experience vs. recalled experience

  • experiencing self vs. remembering self [clip]
  • http://www.ted.com/talks/daniel_kahneman_the_riddle_of_experience_vs_memory?language=en
  • ‘Objective’ vs. ‘Subjective’ experience

Objective-subjective experience: as experienced in the moment

Subjective-subjective experience: comes later

Remembering: keeps score, remembers aspects of your self Experiencing: happens in the moment

  • Which of these predict future choices? o Suggestions that it may be remembered experience
  • What were the main goals of this research?

o Study a more ‘real world’ context over longer time period (cf. previous lab studies) o Assess predictions, online experience, and remembered experience; compare them o See which predict future intentions

  • What were [the major constructs and method features]?

o PA, NA, and overall enjoyment

  • Predicted (2 weeks & 2-4 days before trip)
  • Experience (7 times daily)
  • Remembered (2-4 days & 4 weeks after trip) o Future choice item (5 weeks after trip)
  • What are the main [results]? o Predictions and recall ‘better’ than experience
  • What are the main [results]?

o Remembered most related to future choice

 

 

 

  • What is the main conclusion of the paper?

o Actual experience less intense than predicted and remembered (note positive and negative)

  • Many ‘neutral’ moments neglected?

o Remembered emotions predict choices

  • What are implications of this research?
    • Objective experience not necessarily more useful
  • What kind of trip to choose?
  • How to structure experiences (e.g., colonoscopy-like things)?
  • What is one important limitation of this research?
    • Small, unrepresentative sample; matters how?
    • Non-behavioural ‘choice’
  • Others?

 

Wirtz et al. Wrap-up

  • We can distinguish between predicted, experienced, and remembered emotions
  • Although related, the differences may be important Remembered emotions may predict choices
  • Which should we try to maximize?

 

Affective Forecasting

  • ‘Predicted emotions’ have spawned much research in recent years
  • Notion that prediction errors impede happiness maximization
  • A few systematic errors found
  • Some additional, idiosyncratic errors found
  • Impact bias o Tendency to over-estimate intensity or duration of emotional reactions o g., Pregnancy tests, tenure decisions, sports games, elections, exams, loss aversion (gambling), etc.

Outcome wasn’t very different between decisions o Immune neglect: under-estimating all we do to cope with bad experiences (cf., adaptation)

Underestimating psychological immune system

Don’t foresee how to cope with situations o Focalism: failing to consider the ‘full picture’

o Some method concerns about understanding of questions (‘in general’ vs. event)

Immune neglect and focalism are two reason for why impact bias may exist – more specific reasons

  • A few other kinds, examples:
  • Interacting with stranger vs. partner

Forced to be more pleasant to make a good first impression – overall better mood

  • Talking to stranger on bus, taxi, subway

If you try to connect with random strangers, makes you feel happier

  • Insult by friend vs. stranger Stranger would be worse
  • Items with return policy or not

Happier with purchases when we’re not able to return them – inability to change

  • Walking in tunnels vs. near river at CU

Students over estimated the difference in scenery

  • (less prone to critiques about questions)

Participants are not usually wrong about the direction, but rather the duration and intensity

 

Affective Forecasting Errors

  • Do these fit in positive psychology? o Why or why not?
  • Should we try to correct them?

o If so, how would you do that?

Maybe we make these errors because it steers us in the direction of the right answers

Could have a lasting change that would be much better if corrected

  • Why do we make them?