Earliest Development<\/p>\n

\n
• Gametes\u00ad sex cells that form new cell at conception o Sperm, ovum<\/li>\n
• Zygote\u00ad new cell formed by fertilization o Genes\u00ad basic units of genetic information o DNA molecules\u00ad make up genes\n
  \n
  • Chromosomes\u00ad rod\u00adshaped portions of DNA<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
  • 46 arranged into 23 pairs<\/li>\n
  • Males are heterogametic= XY<\/li>\n
  • Females are homogametic= XX<\/li>\n
  • Father determines the sex of the zygote<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

    Multiple Births<\/p>\n

    \n
    • Rare in humans\u00ad less than 3% of births are multiples<\/li>\n
    • Triplets, quadruplets, ect.\u00ad more common with fertility treatments, advanced age of mother<\/li>\n
    • Monozygotic\u00ad aka identical, maternal twins\u00ad 30% of twins\u00ad 1 zygote Dizygotic\u00ad aka fraternal twins\u00ad 70% of twins\u00ad 2 zygotes<\/li>\n
    • Identical not really identical\u00ad different fingerprints, ect.<\/li>\n
    • Further along in pregnancy before zygote splits, more similarity<\/li>\n
    • Dizygotic= no more similar than any other siblings From Genotype to Phenotype<\/li>\n
    • Genotype\u00ad inherited genes<\/li>\n
    • Phenotypes\u00ad expression of genes Influences on Gene Expression<\/li>\n
    • Genetic interactions\u00ad genes can contain conflicting info; may split the difference o Dominant\u00adrecessive patter\u00ad ex: eye color\n
      \n
      • Polygenetic inheritance\u00ad combination of several genes responsible for a trait<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
      • Gene\u00adenvironment interactions\u00ad environment can affect how genes are expressed\n
        \n
        • Ex: height<\/li>\n
        • Reaction range\u00ad range of possibilities determined by genes<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
        • Inherited and Genetic Abnormalities o Failure of chromosomes to divide evenly; spontaneous mutations o Up to 1\/2 of zygotes have chromosomal abnormalities; most miscarried o 1 in 200 live births<\/li>\n
        • Down Syndrome: aka trisomy 21. 3 chromosomes at 21 chromosome pair<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

          \uf0a7\u00a0\u00a0 Characteristics facial features; heart defects; hearing problems; developmental delays (highly variable)<\/p>\n

          \n
          • Kleinfelter’s Syndrome: 1\/400 males; extra X chromosome<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

            \uf0a7\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Underdeveloped genitals; enlarged breasts; extreme height; learning disabilities<\/p>\n

            \n
            • Fragile X Syndrome: males and females; malformation on X chromosome<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

              \uf0a7\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Some, no signs; others, mild\u00ad moderate developmental delays<\/p>\n

              \n
              • Turner Syndrome: only females; only 1 X chromosome<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

                \uf0a7\u00a0\u00a0 Short; webbed neck; little breast development; learning disabilities; difficulty recognizing emotional facial cues<\/p>\n

                \n
                • Sickle cell Anemia: more common in AA populations; disorder of red blood cells\n
                  \n
                  • Normal red blood cells= doughnut without the hole<\/li>\n
                  • Sickle cells= crescent shaped; sticky and stiff<\/li>\n
                  • Block blood flow to limbs and organs<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
                  • Tay\u00adSachs disease: born without enzyme that clears out unwanted material in brain \uf0a7 Affects sight, hearing, movement, mental dev.\n
                    \n
                    • More common in certain groups\u00ad Ashkenazi, Jews, ect.<\/li>\n
                    • No treatment, always fatal<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

                      Genetic Counseling<\/p>\n

                      \n
                      • Evaluating family history, medical records<\/li>\n
                      • Genetic testing<\/li>\n
                      • Evaluating results<\/li>\n
                      • Helping parents understand results; decide what to do next<\/li>\n
                      • *Review different types of prenatal tests in text*<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

                        Behavioral Genetics<\/p>\n

                        \n
                        • Effects of heredity on behavior<\/li>\n
                        • Some char’s determined entirely by genes; others by interactions between genes and environment<\/li>\n
                        • Relative weight of each<\/li>\n
                        • Heritability applies to populations; NOT individuals<\/li>\n
                        • Ex: height<\/li>\n
                        • Methods of Investigation:<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
                          \n
                          • Family Studies\u00ad easy to find\n
                            \n
                            • Problem: share environments as well as genetics<\/li>\n
                            • Good place to start<\/li>\n
                            • Twin studies\u00ad comparing similarity for a trait in MZ vs DZ twin sets<\/li>\n
                            • Both types share the environment (though MZ may share more than DZ); difference lies<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

                              in amount of shared DNA<\/p>\n

                              \n
                              • If MZ twins are more similar than DZ= genetic component<\/li>\n
                              • \n
                                \n
                                • In both types, equally similar= shared environmental imput<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
                                • Adoption studies\u00ad compare child to adoptive and biological parents for similarity on a characteristic.<\/li>\n
                                • More similar to bio= genetic influence<\/li>\n
                                • More similar to adoptive= environmental influence<\/li>\n
                                • \n
                                  \n
                                  • Cons\u00ad difficult to find kids; privacy issues; difference in parents<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
                                  • Adoptive\u00ad older, richer, healthier<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

                                     <\/p>\n

                                    Prenatal Growth and Change<\/p>\n

                                    The Stages of Prenatal Development<\/p>\n

                                    \n
                                    • 1.The Germinal Stage\u00ad fer\u00ad2 weeks\n
                                      \n
                                      • Fertilization occurs in fallopian tubes; zygote must travel to uterus to implant<\/li>\n
                                      • Cells divide exponentially\u00ad a 8 cell stage, cell differentiation starts<\/li>\n
                                      • Outer cells\u00ad placenta\u00ad connection between mother and fetus; nutrition\/ oxygen via umbilical cord<\/li>\n
                                      • Inner cells\u00ad embryo<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
                                      • 1.Embryonic\u00ad 2\u00ad8 weeks. Embryo\u00ad 3layers\n
                                        \n
                                        • Ectoderm\u00ad skin and nervous system<\/li>\n
                                        • Endoderm\u00ad dif]gestive and respitory system<\/li>\n
                                        • Mesoderm\u00ad muscle and skeletal systems<\/li>\n
                                        • 22 days afetr fertilization\u00ad neural tube<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
                                        • 1.Fetal stage\u00ad 8 weeks\u00ad birth. Fetus\n
                                          \n
                                          • Organ development, overall growth<\/li>\n
                                          • Becoming more obvious<\/li>\n
                                          • By the end of the month, all parts of the body are present. 3 oz<\/li>\n
                                          • 7 months\u00ad birth\u00ad putting on weight, getting ready for life outside womb Threats to Development<\/li>\n
                                          • Teratogens\u00ad harmful environmental effects that can affect fetus o Timing is important; in general, earlier in pregnancy, more harmful effects will be o Different organs\/systems have different critical periods<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
                                          • 1.Mother’s Diet\u00ad not usually a problem in WEIRD cultures o Malnutrition harms mother and fetus<\/li>\n
                                          • 2.Mother’s Age\u00ad usually young\/ old\u00ad difficult pregnancy, premature birth, low birth weight<\/li>\n
                                          • 3.Maternal Drug Use\u00ad legal and illegal o Thalidomide\u00ad morning sickness<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
                                            \n
                                            • Phocomelia\u00ad stunted arms, legs\n
                                              \n
                                              • Smoking\u00ad low oxygen levels\n
                                                \n
                                                • Low birth weight\u00ad compromised immune system; poor respiration, mental retardation,<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

                                                  miscarriage, asthma, SIDS<\/p>\n

                                                  \n
                                                  • Alcohol\u00ad fetal alcohol syndrome\u00ad heart defects, facial\/body abnormalities, mental retardation\n
                                                    \n
                                                    • Most common non\u00adgenetic form of mental retardation<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
                                                    • Cocaine\u00ad low birth weight, low oxygen levels, neurological impairment\n
                                                      \n
                                                      • Difficult to separate bad prenatal care from effects of drug<\/li>\n
                                                      • .Maternal Disease\u00ad herpes, rubella, AIDS o AIDS\u00ad with antivirals, less than 5% born with HIV o Herpes\u00ad Cesarean section can prevent transmission<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

                                                        Earliest Development Gametes\u00ad sex cells that form new cell at conception o Sperm, ovum Zygote\u00ad new cell formed by fertilization o Genes\u00ad basic units of genetic information o DNA… Continue Reading Prenatal Development and Birth<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":[],"categories":[97],"tags":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3799"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=3799"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3799\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":4785,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3799\/revisions\/4785"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=3799"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=3799"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=3799"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}