{"id":4396,"date":"2018-09-21T19:00:52","date_gmt":"2018-09-21T23:00:52","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/?p=4396"},"modified":"2018-09-21T19:04:56","modified_gmt":"2018-09-21T23:04:56","slug":"hedonism-and-sensory-stimulation","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/motivation\/hedonism-and-sensory-stimulation\/","title":{"rendered":"Hedonism and Sensory Stimulation"},"content":{"rendered":"<h1>Hedonism<\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Seeking of pleasure and avoidance of pain<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>Spencer said: Pleasurable behaviour has survival value: pleasurable behaviours are adaptive and random responses leading to pain became less probable; similar to Darwinian theory &#8211; Stimulation in 3 categories:<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ol>\n<li><strong>Beneception<\/strong>: pleasant feelings are aroused by stimuli i.e. sweet tastes<\/li>\n<li><strong>Nociception<\/strong>: unpleasant feelings are aroused by stimuli i.e. bitter tastes<\/li>\n<li><strong>Neutroception<\/strong>: stimuli causing neither pleasant or unpleasant feelings i.e. vision<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><strong>&#8211;\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong>Beebe Center- proposed <strong>hedonic continuum<\/strong>: pleasantness and unpleasantness are opposite extremes on continuum w\/neutral zone in middle<\/p>\n<p>o <strong>Bright pressure<\/strong>: reactions of sense organs to make pleasant feelings o <strong>Dull pressure<\/strong>: reactions of sense organs to make unpleasant feelings<\/p>\n<p><strong>&#8211;\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong>Instructions can change perceived pleasantness or unpleasantness of stimuli, which indicates pleasantness and unpleasantness are relative to whatever else is happening to us; instructions alter pleasantness of stimuli by changing actions of sense organs vs. by altering perceptions of stimulation at some more central<\/p>\n<p>(brain) level; but today, effects are predicted to be more central in nature<\/p>\n<h2>P.T. Young: Sign, Intensity and Duration<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>T. Young: best known hedonic theorist<\/li>\n<li><strong>Affective processes in continuum have 3 properties:<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ol>\n<li><strong>Sign: (+) affect = approach vs. (-) affect = avoidance<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>Intensity: to observe intensity affects, researchers use preference tests: in 2choice situation, chosen substance is more hedonically intense than nonchosen one<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>Duration: hedonic processes may last as long as sensory stimulation lasts and some outlast stimulation<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<ul>\n<li>Graphical representation of hedonic continuum: range of hedonic continuum from max. (-) end = distress to neutral zone to max. (+) end = delight<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>o Differences in intensity are represented by arbitrary units marked along continuum<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Nervous system is made in way that causes organisms to try to maximize (+) affect and minimize (-) affect<\/li>\n<li>When (-) change occurs, organism is motivated to reduce (-) affect situation<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>Sensory Stimulation and the Hedonic Continuum<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>Sensory stimuli: provide info to organism about conditions of its external and internal environment<\/li>\n<li>Affective processes, as represented by hedonic continuum convey little info: whether something is good (pleasant) or bad (unpleasant); thus, this affective info is biologically primitive o Thus, hedonic continuum is not same as sensory stimulation<\/li>\n<li>e. choices between distilled water and salty water = preference for salt vs. choice between distilled water and increased concentration of salty water = preference for distilled water o Thus, we cannot assume changes in sensory intensity = changes in hedonic effect<\/li>\n<li>Hedonic processes represented by hedonic continuum have motivational influences on behaviour:<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ol>\n<li>(+) affect is closely associated w\/approach behaviour and (-) affect w\/withdrawal 2. Affective processes both activate and direct behaviour so max. (+) affect and min. (-) affect are maintained<\/li>\n<li>Affective processes lead to development of stable, motives and dispositions i.e.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>sweet taste of ice cream = development of choosing ice cream over other foods <strong>&#8211;\u00a0 <\/strong>Changes in motivation are also seen as dependent on changes in hedonic value<\/p>\n<p>i.e. if rat is given choice between 2 substances i.e. sugar and flour, it will prefer sugar; but if one of test foods is replaced by new food, change may occur in behaviour exhibited toward old substances in choice situation o Thus, introduction of new substance changes motivation of organism b\/c organism as developed expectancy of choice between 2 substances of diff hedonic value<\/p>\n<p>o Thus, changes in goal objects = changes in expectancy = changes in performance<\/p>\n<p>The Motivational Influence of Sensations<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Paffman suggested sensory stimulation alone is motivating and leads to approach or withdrawal behaviour i.e. taste sensations are enough to trigger approach or avoidance behaviour without being tied to physiological chance<\/li>\n<li>Paffman and Young realize hedonic and sensory intensity are not equivalent<\/li>\n<li>Paffman believed stimulus properties of tasted substance directly determine hedonic value of substance<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Hedonic Value and Contact Receptors<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Stimulation of contact receptors i.e. taste seems more often associated w\/strong emotion than stimulation of distance receptors i.e. vision and are more often associated w\/consummatory activity i.e. taste- eating and genetic contact- sex<\/li>\n<li>Hedonic tone provided directly by contact receptors may be evolutionary adaption i.e. distance receptor (vision) give lead time for person to make judgment and react, but contact receptors often involve stimuli (i.e. pain) that require quick reaction if organism is to survive o Thus, hedonic value (pleasure or pain) may evolved in conjunction w\/stimulation of contact receptors to quickly direct behaviour<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>o There is relationship between contact receptors, emotion and consummatory behaviour<\/p>\n<h2>Pain<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>Prior to Melzack and Wall\u2019s model, pain was thought to result from pain receptors sending their messages along specific pain fibres to brain, where pain was experiences; impossible b\/c men wounded in battle sometimes feel no pain<\/li>\n<li>Thus, there is no simple and direct relationship between severity of injury and amount of pain experiences<\/li>\n<li>Pathological pain states such as: <strong>causalgia<\/strong>: burning pain caused by lesion of peripheral nerve, <strong>peripheral neuralgia<\/strong>: occurs after peripheral nerve infection and <strong>phantom limb pain<\/strong>: experienced even when involved body part is amputated o Cannot be treated by lesions of peripheral or central nervous system; thus, pain is more than simple perception of painful stimulation<\/li>\n<li>If person is focused on painful aspects of procedure, pain is experienced more intensely<\/li>\n<li>Higher brain processes can alter experience of pain<\/li>\n<li>Melzack and Wall\u2019s <strong>gate control theory<\/strong>: model of pain that emphasized role of higher brain processes in controlling experience f pain and modulating system within spinal cord that influenced how much pain info reaches brain<\/li>\n<li>Pain control gates are modulated by neurotransmitter changes involving <strong>endogenous opiates<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>Naloxone<\/strong>: evidence for opioid system in gating of pain; blocks effects of opiates and analgesic effects of acupuncture<\/li>\n<li>Gender diffs in pain (shows pain is complex interaction of brain systems):\n<ul>\n<li>Women are at higher risk for many clinical pain conditions o Postoperative and procedural pain is more severe for women than men o Women have greater pain sensitivity than men, caused by psychosocial factors i.e. gender roles<\/li>\n<li>Learning and emotional reactions can also modulate pain<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Areas of brain that contribute to pain modulation: thalamus, limbic system, prefrontal cortex, somatosensory cortex, cingulate cortex and basal ganglia<\/li>\n<li>Grey matter in brain stem is important in reduction of pain made by endogenous opiates o Endogenous opiates produce analgesia by blocking production of <strong>substance P<\/strong>: transmitters<\/li>\n<li>Thus, central modulation of pain is partly mediated by action of endogenous opiates<\/li>\n<li>Cognitive control of painful stimulation results partly from activation of opioid system<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h1>Novelty, Curiosity and Exploratory Behaviour<\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Terms used to describe motive state made by external stimuli <\/strong>\uf0e0<strong> challenges drive-reduction theory of motivation<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>Changes in sensory qualities of environment (eternal stimuli) i.e. novelty and uncertainty = increased arousal = changes in motivated behaviour <\/strong>\uf0e0<strong> then we make efforts to have moderate level of arousal<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>Behaviours Released by Stimulation<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>Harlow argues external stimuli are important in motivating behaviour and much of human behaviour is motivated by non-homeostatic mechanisms i.e. humans solve problems w\/no use<\/li>\n<li>Behaviours are motivated simply by sensory stimulation they provide<\/li>\n<li>Experiment by Harlow: delivery of food tended to disrupt performance on puzzles and rewarded group lost interest in puzzles sooner than non-rewarded group o For non-rewarded group, behaviour was maintained by motive to manipulate and explore puzzle<\/li>\n<li>Berlyne argued that exploratory activity has function of altering stimulus fields that we are immersed in; involved in changing stimulus input that we receive vs. causing changes in body tissue<\/li>\n<li>Berlyne suggested factors such as novelty and uncertainty have motivational properties b\/c they increase arousal level or organism<\/li>\n<li>He argued that if we attempt to maintain optimal level of arousal; if stimulation drops to low (i.e. in boredom), we become motivated to increase behaviour and if arousal level becomes to high, we will be motivated to lower it<\/li>\n<li>Amount of exploratory behaviour showed by Montgomery\u2019s rats were controlled by the degree of stimulation change involved i.e. drastic change in colour: black \uf0e0 white<\/li>\n<li>Hebb believed that moderate changes in arousal are reinforcing b\/c we become used to the familiar; we approach new stimulus situations, if they are too arousing, we will withdraw from the,<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>He assumed that brain and body need to be active i.e. play behaviour occurs when other needs are not active; it has neural component b\/c many games depend on memory of earlier experiences i.e. patty-cake o Play behaviour occurs b\/c of boredom; it proved higher level of arousal<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Studies of exploratory behaviour, play, novelty and uncertainty showed that motivation can be triggered by situations that lead to increase in stimulation o Motivation is activated when stimulus conditions are too high or low<\/li>\n<li>Deviations from optimal arousal (too much or too little): trigger motivation in organisms to behave in ways that bring arousal back to optimal level<\/li>\n<li>Thus, depriving organism of changing stimulus input = motivated behaviour<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The Need for Stimulation<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Need for stimulation exists<\/li>\n<li><strong>Results of sensory deprivation in developing organisms and adults show disruption of normal behaviour and big attitude change<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0b7 Early Sensory Restriction<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>When experimental Scotties were let out of isolation condition, they were very active vs. Scotties raised in controls; they explored environments after control subjects got bored of it o Thus, sensory restriction altered normal motivation behaviour of dogs<\/li>\n<li>Scotties\u2019 reactions to strange and painful objects: isolated Scotties became agitated by strange object but did not avoid it (seemed unaware that pain was from eternal object in their environment) vs. normal Scotties learned to avoid<\/li>\n<li>Test of problem-solving abilities: experimental Scotties were deficient compared to normal ones<\/li>\n<li>Sensory restriction had long-term and permanent effects on behaviour of isolated Scotties<\/li>\n<li>Isolated Scotties were unable to direct behaviour in efficient and adaptive way<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>i.e. in escaping from painful object<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Sensory restrictions may induce emotionality (hyperexcitability) when normal levels of stimulation are provided ***<\/li>\n<li>Conclusion of study: increases in stimulation were emotion producing for darkreared subjects<\/li>\n<li>Emotional disturbance may sometimes result of consequence of incongruent sensory input<\/li>\n<li>Lighter environment was incongruent w\/rearing histories of animals<\/li>\n<li>Animals were 1) hyperexcitable and emotional and 2) did not cope well w\/new and strange simulation situations<\/li>\n<li>Early sensory restrictions may alter normal functioning of the brain; evidenced by increased susceptibility to seizure<\/li>\n<li>Visual patterning experienced early in development infleunces development of visual processing circuits<\/li>\n<li>Adequate stimulation is needed for normal development<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Thought much of effect of sensory restriction results from physiological and perceptual changes, research also suggests that motivational and emotional changes occur<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>To deprived animal, new sensations lead to fear and withdrawal<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>Attachment<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>Maternal Deprivation\n<ul>\n<li>Loss of care from mother or whoever is responsible for developing organism<\/li>\n<li>Parents of young animals provide rich source of stimuli to developing organism i.e. sight, touch, smell, etc.<\/li>\n<li>Lack of adequate parent-infant interactions makes long-lasting effects b\/c of reduced sensory stimulation from both environment and parent<\/li>\n<li>Harlow experiment: infants separated from mothers developed strong attachment to cloth pads placed in their cages + became emotional when pads were removed o Baby monkeys were taken from mothers at birth and put into individual cages w\/surrogate mother made of wire of soft cloth\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Monkeys spent most time w\/soft cloth mom b\/c of contact comfort: body contact; source of security<\/strong><\/li>\n<li>Rocking movement, temp., etc. also involved in attachment process o Maternal face is beautiful to baby no matter how others may judge it o More isolation = more abnormal behaviour + more likely for abnormal behaviour to be permanent i.e. chew own bodies until they bleed<\/li>\n<li>Thus, experience w\/mom and peers is necessary<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>In child abuse cases, abuser was usually abused; thus: proper parenting partly depends on observing how parents behaved<\/li>\n<li>Parenting can be understood as motivated behaviour resulting partly from learning process of modeling<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Protest, Despair, Detachment and Ambivalence<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Predictable series of behaviours kids go through in child-separation: 1) protest: crying and uncooperative w\/attendants, 2) despair: accept some comfort from attendants and become possessive of them and hostility toward other children, 3) children return to parents: degree of detachment depends on length of time child has ben separated from parents, 4) ambivalence: child shows hostility towards parents and clinging towards parents <\/strong>o 1) more mothering and 2) familiar people i.e. grandparents = reduced intensity of separation effects<\/li>\n<li>Institutionalized infants die w\/adequate physical care if no adequate individual attention<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Deprivation Dwarfism (Psychosocial Dwarfism)\n<ul>\n<li>Retarted growth; reduction of bone maturation to point that child\u2019s physical maturation is less than normal for its age<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Caused by lack of adequate home conditions (social environment) vs. neuralendocrine problems<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Study: 6 dwarfs stunted physically and psychologically w\/passively neglectful parent(s) o When children were removed from their bad environment to hospital:<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>improved physically and psychologically; started growing again<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Residual effects of early deprivation on personality structure and intelligence still existed<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li>Environmental deprivation and emotional disturbance influence endocrine functioning; especially pituitary gland<\/li>\n<li>Pituitary gland secretes <strong>growth hormone (somatotrophin):<\/strong> stimulated growth; subnormal level in dwarfs<\/li>\n<li>Disruption of normal sleep pattern suppresses this growth hormone; dwarfs have abnormal sleep patterns<\/li>\n<li>Growth hormone is mostly secreted in beginning of sleep; thus, is person does not sleep, hormone<\/li>\n<li>Summary: poor social environment = abnormal sleep patterns = change in secretion of growth hormone = reduction in growth<\/li>\n<li>There is critical period where external stimulation is needed for optimal development; Harlow found this too<\/li>\n<li>Without adequate stimulation, permanent deficiencies result i.e. withdrawal<\/li>\n<li>Bad social environment where children are forced to live is not optimal<\/li>\n<li>Mother-infant and peer-interactions are important sources of stimulation needed for normal development of organism and motivation<\/li>\n<li>Diffs in mother-infant interactions may partly explain diffs in adulthood<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li>Sensory Deprivation in Adults\n<ul>\n<li>Sensory deprivation studies usually deprive participants of many sensory inputs at the same time i.e. tactile, visual and audio inputs; types:\n<ul>\n<li>Absolute reduction, reduced patterning or imposed structuring (usually monotonous, without any reduction in stimulation) of sensory stimulation <strong>&#8211; Some participants could no longer tolerate isolated conditions (b\/c of boredom and irritability) and showed impaired thinking, hallucinations, emotionality and changes in EEG of brain activity<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Sensory deprivation = aversive<\/li>\n<li>People need to maintain certain level of stimulation needed for efficient functioning; they become motivated to increase it if deprived of it<\/li>\n<li><strong>Perceptual (i.e. loss of patterned vision) and intellectual (i.e. decreased performance on many tasks) functioning are altered by sensory input<\/strong><\/li>\n<li>Sensory deprivation in adults = temp. disruptions in behaviour vs. in children = perm. deficiencies<\/li>\n<li>Social contact may be important b\/c provides complex sensory<\/li>\n<li>Adults who already developed adequate processes for dealing w\/incoming sensory info are constantly monitoring and correcting strategies as conditions change<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Effects of sensory deprivation in adults disrupt this evaluation process = temp. reduction in cognitive abilities and distortion in perception of events<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li>Study: sensory deprivation in adult jet pilots caused disorientation of feelings and surroundings o In all cases, persons disorientation was isolated from rest of crew o 3 conditions associated w\/disorientation: flying alone, flying at high altitudes and minimum activity\n<ul>\n<li>Symptoms reported by fliers are similar to those in sensory deprivation experiments<\/li>\n<li>All disorientation symptoms were reduced if activity was required of other people to talk w\/were present<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Any situation w\/ reduced or monotonous stimulation and little activity are candidate for disorientation i.e. driving in dark highway alone in midnight<\/li>\n<li>Some people tolerate sensory deprivation better than others: participants who scored as mature handlers of primary process though (w\/min. anxiety) had better toleration<\/li>\n<li>Some people who are emotionally secure can profit from isolation experiences if they are not too long or severe<\/li>\n<li>Sensory deprivation may have beneficial effects i.e. some people enjoy it, can be therapeutically helpful and in environment <strong>REST (Restricted Environmental Stimulation Technique),<\/strong> some participants improve in controlling habits i.e. smoking<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>Sensation Seeking<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>When sensory restriction occurs, people seek stimulation and can become more susceptible to persuasion<\/li>\n<li>Optimal level of stimulation differs from person to person (these 2 points should go above)<\/li>\n<li><strong>Sensation seeking<\/strong>: tendency to seek novel, varied, complex and intense sensation and experiences and willingness to take risks for these experiences<\/li>\n<li><strong>Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS)<\/strong>: reliable measure of differences in level of stimulation people seek out o From a person\u2019s responses, total SSS score and scores on 4 subscales can be obtained: 1) thrill and adventure seeking (TAS), 2) experience seeking<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>(ES), 3) disinhibition (DIS), 4) boredom susceptibility (BS) <strong>&#8211;\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong>Factors for high SS:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Age <\/strong>(SS declines in age) and <strong>sex <\/strong>(men are higher in SS): 2 most influential factors observed in SS<\/li>\n<li><strong>Risky behaviours: <\/strong>high SS rate situations as less risky than low SS b\/c of their successful experience w\/more risky situations in the past o More participation in <strong>sports<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>Risky vocations<\/strong> (i.e. police work) o <strong>Social interactions<\/strong>: high SS find it more of a (+) experience than low SS <strong>o Emotionally expressive <\/strong><strong>o Sexually permissive <\/strong><strong>o High divorce <\/strong><strong>o More drug use: <\/strong>b\/c of need for novelty and curiosity<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li>Thus, optimal level of arousal can vary widely from person to person and people are motivated to engage in activities (or to avoid them) in order to maintain level of stimulation they prefer<\/li>\n<li>Effects of alcohol, gender and SS on gambling choices: alcohol sue does not affect gambling choices, but SS does<\/li>\n<li>High SS is not negative trait though i.e. Israeli <strong>war<\/strong> veterans score higher in SS and were less influenced by war-related problems i.e. PTSD<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>o B\/c high SS has stress-buffering effect that helps in presently dangerous situation and in long-term adjustment to stress of war<\/p>\n<h1>Opponent-Process Theory: Hedonism Theory<\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li>Solomon and Corbit proposed homeostatic model of hedonic quality: both pleasant and aversive hedonic states are opposed by central nervous system processes that reduces their intensity by producing hedonic state that is opposite in quality to the initial stimulus\n<ul>\n<li>Thus, stimuli that give rise to pleasurable feelings will be opposed by aversive feelings generated by process vs. stimuli that initially give rise to aversive feelings will be opposed by pleasant feelings generated by process<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Every affective situation has 5 characteristics; when stimulus is detected it makes hedonic reaction that: 1) quickly peaks, 2) adaption phase; intensity of hedonic experience declines, 3) steady level, 4) peak affective after-reaction w\/characteristics opposite to original hedonic state and 5) decay until intensity of affective after-reaction returns to 0<\/li>\n<li>Assumes that physiological processes that triggers initial hedonic reaction <strong>State A<\/strong>, will be opposed by second physiological state, which will trigger an opposite hedonic reaction <strong>State B<\/strong><\/li>\n<li>Decline in hedonic value from peak of State A to steady level results from state B\u2019s effect of reducing State A<\/li>\n<li>Thus, steady level of hedonic intensity is State A \u2013 State B<\/li>\n<li>When stimulus creating A is no longer present, full force of State B (opposite hedonic reaction to state) is felt<\/li>\n<li>State A and B are different b\/c: 1) opposite hedonic quality, 2) State A develops quickly and is associated w\/intensity of stimulus that produced vs. State B develops slowly and is produced as reaction to State A (not made by stimulus), 3) State B decreases slowly and continues even when State A is removed b\/c it decays slowly, 4) repeated presentations of stimulus that produced State A have<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>no effect on intensity of State A vs. repeated elicitation of State B leads to strengthening of State B<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Since activation of state B has effect of reducing intensity of state A, repeated presentations of the stimulus that triggered state A will actually lead to a reduction in the hedonic intensity of state A b\/c state B will increase in intensity<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Drug Addiction: An Alternative to the Incentive Sensitization View<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Addicting substance will initially give rise to pleasurable feelings (state A), but OP will gain in strength as person uses dug, so aversive state B develops<\/li>\n<li>Since pleasurable experiences of state A are reduced by growing aversive state B, a point will be reached where addicted individual maintains drug to avoid aversiveness of state B vs. for pleasure of drug; withdrawal symptoms that occurs when drug-maintained state A is absent<\/li>\n<li>Neutral stimuli that precede states A and B can become conditioned to those states; any cue that consistently occurs before high of drug state A will begin to act as secondary reinforce for continued drug use<\/li>\n<li>Neutral stimuli associated w\/aversive state B of drug withdrawal will negatively reinforce behaviours that reduce these stimuli o Only way to avoid (-) stimuli is to take drug again = addiction<\/li>\n<li>Tolerance of drug can be partly explained as result of A an B states o Experiment: rats develop conditioned tolerance of morphine in environmental situations that signal impending drug administration; cues signaling drug injection have become conditioned to compensatory process that has same characteristics as O-P state B aroused by drug injection<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Thrill Seeking<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>O-P suggests that one reason people engage in behaviours such as roller-coaster riding is b\/c of strong state b that occurs after initial fear-producing or painful state A<\/li>\n<li>e. in parachute jumping, aversive state A occurs during initial jump (shown by signs of terror i.e. eyes bulge) and upon landing, positive state B is in effect; people are very excited after i.e. interact socially in animated ways<\/li>\n<li>For experienced chutist it is diff: after repeated jumps, fearful state A is reduced to point hat chutist is eager (vs. scared) b\/c build up of (+) state B reduces state<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>A; thus chutist looks more excited before jump (vs. signs of terror)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>According to O-P, people engage in frightening behaviours b\/c of reduction in initially aversive state A and highly (+) opposite reaction that occurs when behaviour stops<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Social Attachment<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Some aspect of imprinting stimulus triggers (+) state A b\/c studies show that young birds are highly motivated to approach and follow and imprinting stimulus and that such stimulus can serve as positive reinforce<\/li>\n<li>Removal of imprinted stimulus leads to distress calling, which is used as a measure of (-) state B<\/li>\n<li>Distress calling appeared to indicate the growth of (-) state B opposing (+) state A that happens when imprinted stimulus is present<\/li>\n<li>Important factor in development of (-) state B: time interval between successive presentations of imprinting stimulus\n<ul>\n<li>Short interval: negative state B grows as predicted by O-P vs. long interval: (-) state B has time to decay and thus, does not grow stronger = critical decay<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>If changes in intensity of imprinting stimulus (i.e. adding sound) and changes in duration (decreasing time stimulus is present affects critical decay <strong><u>Additional: pgs. 357-3632<\/u><\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>Emotion from a Biological Perspective<\/h2>\n<p>Anithesis<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Darwin proposed opposite emotions = opposite behaviours<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Direct Action of the Nervous System<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Says that some emotional expressions occur simply b\/c of changes in nervous system activity i.e. trembling when fearful<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Recognition of Emotional States<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Survival value of emotional behaviour: provides \u201cclues\u201d of person\u2019s emotional state to other members of its species; recognition of these \u201cclues\u201d are innate<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>Other Formulations of Emotion after Darwin<\/h2>\n<p>The James-Lange Theory<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Perception of experience of emotion: perception of environmental stimulus (.e. barking dog) <\/strong>\uf0e0<strong> bodily responses (i.e. rapid breathing, increased heart rate) <\/strong>\uf0e0<strong> sent to brain indicating \u201cchanged state\u201d = changed physical state = experience of emotion<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>o Thus, perceptions of changes in our body = arousal = emotional experience <strong>o Emphasized role of ANS<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Cannon emphasized role of central nervous system: cortex, thalamus and hypothalamus were \u201cseat\u201d of emotional experience &#8211; <\/strong>Cannon argued:<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ol>\n<li>Bodily changes can be eliminated w\/out disturbing emotions of organism<\/li>\n<li>Bodily changes are same regardless of emotion shown<\/li>\n<li>Internal organs (viscera) providing feedback to brain are not sensitive structures<\/li>\n<li>Changes in internal organs are too slow to provide experience of emotion<\/li>\n<li>Artificial induction of aroused emotional state does not lead to emotional \u201cfeeling\u201d<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Emergency theory<\/strong>: alternative to James-Lange theory<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The <strong>Automatic Nervous System<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Controls processes we do not voluntary control (ANS) i.e. heartbeat<\/li>\n<li><strong>Sympathetic nervous system (SNS):<\/strong> most active when energy stores of body are being used<\/li>\n<li><strong>Parasympathetic nervous system (PSN):<\/strong> most active when body is in process of storing energy for future use<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The <strong>Cognitive-Physiological theory of Emotion<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>By Schachter; proposed both physiological arousal and cognitive attributions (that identify w\/one\u2019s immediate environment) are necessary for full experience of emotion<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>Arousal and cognitive labeling are needed for authentic emotional experience<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Hedonism Seeking of pleasure and avoidance of pain Spencer said: Pleasurable behaviour has survival value: pleasurable behaviours are adaptive and random responses leading to pain became less probable; similar&hellip; <a class=\"continue\" href=\"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/motivation\/hedonism-and-sensory-stimulation\/\">Continue Reading<span> Hedonism and Sensory Stimulation<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":[],"categories":[110],"tags":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/4396"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=4396"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/4396\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=4396"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=4396"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=4396"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}